Prior to the Renaissance, western Europe had been dominated by a Platonic worldview. Plato, it will be recalled taught that ultimate reality existed in ideal, metaphysical "forms" of which individual objects were only shadows. This was called philosophical "realism". Seeking to integrate Greek thought forms with the Bible, the church fathers adopted a dualistic view of life in which supremacy was given to the transcendent, "spiritual" realm at the expense of the material world. One result was a sharp division between clergy and laity, with the former engaging in a monastic withdrawal from everyday life.

Philosophical idealism was also reflected in the art of this period, often referred to as the Byzantine style. The emphasis was overwhelmingly on portrayals of spiritual reality, with the object considered more important than the subject. In other words, the material form depicted on canvas, rather than being life-like, was usually a symbol of the underlying spiritual reality. Thus, the focus was on the object rather than the subject.

Thomas Aquinas changed all this by reintroducing Aristotle into the West. In his massive Summa Theologica (1274), Aquinas followed the Patristics in seeking to integrate the Bible with Greek categories of thought, this time the logical thought categories of Aristotle. In contrast to Plato, Aristotle believed that ultimate reality was to be found in a study of particular objects as they existed in the material world. This was a revolutionary shift, laying the foundation for the scientific method, the modern world, and in art an empirical emphasis on objects as they exist in nature. The focus in art changed to a life-like imitation of the object being portrayed. This reflected the humanistic optimism that man, beginning from himself could arrive at a unified world-view.

Unfortunately, in the centuries to follow, the material came to overshadow the spiritual. In the words of Francis Schaeffer, "By the time the full Renaissance had flooded Europe, "nature" had all but overwhelmed "grace." [Schaeffer, Francis, The God Who Is There (Intervarsity Press: Downers Grove, Illinois, 1968), p. 60.]

These historical models lead us to consider the Biblical purpose of art. Is art to function as a symbol of spiritual reality or is it to be a simple imitation of nature? Shall it be faithful to the object or the subject? Because art is an expression of the world view of the artist, it must portray reality accurately. To do so reflects a proper appreciation of the beauty of the material world that God has created.

To do otherwise is to depart from reality, as in modern impressionistic painting. For example, Monet presented the world with an unfocused, dreamlike quality, although much of his work is pleasing to the eye. This was the first step away. Later artists, such as Picasso, Duchamp, and Pollack portrayed reality increasingly as fragmented, unreal and subject to chance, reflecting the pessimistic world view of the modern philosophers. From the initial, naïve optimism of the Renaissance, humanism thus evolved to its inevitable pessimism and despair; man cannot exist apart from God, but he is loathe to admit this.

As noted above, art from the middle ages focused first on the object, then later on the subject. But is there yet a third way? We believe that there is. For the artist to focus on mere imitation of nature is like the scientist who focuses on simple observation and accumulation of facts, without going on to organize, and interpret and formulate laws in terms of the facts.

In another sense, it is also the task of the artist to transcend reality by portraying a vision of the glory that was lost by man in the fall. Art that is "larger than life". In this sense, art serves the prophetic function of reminding man of what he has lost and creating a yearning in his heart for that which he may one day enjoy again through Christ. It points the way to his ultimate destiny in the presence of the glory of God.

Dr. D.J. Kennedy, of Coral Ridge Presbyterian Church, has given us a mnemonic device that helps us to remember the functions of artistic expression. Kennedy describes the devotional, the decorative, and the didactic use of art as follows:

Devotional Use of Art: As we have noted, the devotional function of art points man to God and creates a yearning for something beyond the fallen world in which he lives. This can be seen in a painting of a beautiful sunset, a mountain vista, a sea scape, or a photograph of the heavenly spheres. Care must be taken, however, to avoid the use of art as an aid to worship, which is a violation of the third commandment's injunction against idolatry. One aspect of the Reformation was a reaction against Roman Catholic reliance of icons in worship, which the Reformers believed had degenerated into idols.

Decorative Use of Art: This is the practice of art for the sheer pleasure of imitating and thereby enjoying the creativity of God. Here we not only mimic God's glory and beauty as reflected in his creative handiwork, we can find artistic beauty in the commonplace things and events of life. Thus we glory in the redemptive work of Christ and portray its effect on the world in our creativity, which is derivative of His. No one has said it better than the Dutch leader, Abraham Kuyper, in his famous "Stone Lectures" at Princeton a century ago:

"Calvinism formed the context within which they [Rembrandt and Vermeer] worked, influencing their perceptions of the world they sought to represent, whether or not they adhered to a confessional faith. If a common man, to whom the world pays no special attention, is valued and even chosen by God as one of his elect, this must lead the artist also to find a motive for his artistic studies in what is common and of every-day occurrence to pay attention to the emotions and the issues of the human heart....thus far the artist had only traced upon his canvas the idealized figures of prophets and apostles, of saints and priests. Now, however... he began to reproduce the human expression of every rank and station. " [Peter S. Heslam, Creating A Christian Worldview, (Eerdman's: Grand Rapids, MI, 1998), p.219]

Didactic Use of Art: We have all heard the expression "a picture is worth a thousand words". Because art focuses our senses on some aspect of God or His creation, it is of necessity didactic, or instructive. Art teaches us about God, about ourselves, about our ultimate purpose and destiny in God's creation. This didactic function may be either used properly or abused.

A misuse of the didactic function would be the delusory or propagandistic use of art. For example, Masaccio's Expulsion From Paradise portrays Adam and Eve being driven out of the Garden of Eden, cringing in fear and rejection. The implication is that they must now "go it on their own", apart from God's promise of a redeemer ("He shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise His heel" - Gen. 3:15). This is a distortion of the Biblical picture and leaves us with a false impression of our relationship with God. It reinforces the Renaissance theme of human autonomy, similar to Michelangelo's Man Tearing Himself Out of the Rock.

At the time they were expelled from the garden, God had promised Adam and Eve a Redeemer: Moreover, he had clothed them with the skins of an animal whose blood had been shed. God had chastised them, but at the same time, He had lifted them up and covered their sin. They understood the fact that they had been redeemed, even though they had fallen. No doubt they would have felt sad, remorseful, humbled, their heads may have been hanging, but it is not likely that they would have been cringing from God in fear and rejection, the way Masaccio portrays it. They did not leave the garden like Satan (or later Cain) as condemned criminals, always to wander as fugitives from the presence of God. That is the fate of the humanist. At this point God had planted hope in their hearts. Where is that "hope" in Masaccio's portrayal? Where is the promised redeemer? David, after he had confessed his sin to God was humbled and chastised, but not rejected. That is why we believe this painting - although technically very beautiful --to be a distorted picture of spiritual reality.

Rembrandt, on the other hand, teaches us accurately about the redemption of Christ when he draws himself raising Christ on the cross. In this powerful self-portrait he teaches us that our individual sins have nailed Christ to the cross and that apart from the shedding of blood there is no remission of sin. Likewise, Jan Van Eyck, who painted at the same time as Masaccio, in his Ghent Altarpiece, portrayed Christ as a living lamb standing on an alter and receiving homage from all classes. This is a vivid portrayal of the risen Christ, once offered as a sacrifice for our sins, but now victorious.

Thus, while most of the art of this period was religious in form, it was not necessarily spiritual in its essential content. The distinctions are often subtle, but they bear a powerful, often subliminal message, and we need to consider them carefully. Their importance was multiplied during the Renaissance because art was the primary mode of mass communication - radio, television, newspapers, and mass produced books did not exist. Part of our objective in this course is to sensitize you to the existence of such distinctions.

This course consists of a study of art history from the Renaissance to the Reformation and the practice of basic art techniques introduced during this revolutionary period. The course is built around short essays on the lives of fifteen artists of the period. Some of these may be names with which you are quite familiar, such as Leonardo da Vinci or Michelangelo, but others such as Cimabue or Mantegna may be completely new. All of them made substantial contributions to the art of the period and are important because they were reflecting in their art the philosophies of the day.

We will study them in chronological order, starting with Cimabue and ending with Rubens. You will also find this to be an interesting study of the history of this important era as reflected in the art and philosophy it produced. Where ever possible we will attempt to draw the connections between the various threads that comprise this historical tapestry.

You are no doubt familiar with our recommended approach to the material from your study of the Great Books. Each essay is short, but loaded with significance, so study it carefully. Click to the timeline and make careful note of the historical context. Whenever the text refers to a portrait or other work of art, click to its location on the internet and observe the features discussed in the text. You may revisit the "Art Gallery" as often as you wish. At this point, the non-graded modular review at the bottom of the essay will help you integrate the material in your thinking. Whenever you think you are ready you may click into the quiz and record your grade when finished.

Each lesson also has a practical component that provides you an opportunity to practice a technique related to the artist in question. You may access this by clicking on the "Studio" button near the bottom of each essay. To complete the Art I exercises, you will need some basic art supplies, which will be listed with the exercise.

While it is true that some may be more gifted in art than others, it is our belief that almost anybody can learn the elements and principles of art and with care and practice can achieve a satisfactory level of competence. You might be surprised to learn that art involves mostly copying - either the work of someone else or the work of God in nature. Go slow, and with care and patience you will surprise yourself.

When you have completed each exercise, give it to your parent or proctor for review and if they deem it satisfactory ask them to indicate completion in the matrix below. Each essay will be worth five percent of your total grade; on the other hand, some exercises count for two percent and others for one percent. Your grade for the course will be determined as follows:

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